Underline the changes in the field of society and economy from the Rig Vedic to the later Vedic period. (Answer in 150 words)

Introduction

The later Vedic period witnessed a transition from a relatively pastoral, clan-based society to settled agriculture and stratified territorial polities.

Social changes

• Tribal assemblies such as sabha and samiti declined as kingship became more hereditary and powerful.
• The four-fold varna order hardened; Brahmanas and Kshatriyas gained status while Vaishyas and Shudras faced greater subordination.
• Patriarchal norms strengthened and women’s public and ritual position generally narrowed, though learned women remained visible.
• Kinship-based identities gradually gave way to territorial and occupational identities.

Economic changes

• Iron tools, especially in the Ganga-Yamuna doab, enabled forest clearance and settled agriculture.
• Barley was supplemented by rice; surplus production supported towns, craft specialisation and larger states.
• Cattle remained important, but land, plough agriculture, tribute and taxation acquired greater significance.
• Trade and artisanal activity expanded, laying foundations for the second urbanisation.

Keywords: pastoralism, iron technology, agriculture, varna, surplus, territorial state.